By J. E. Kennedy

Abstract: Paranormal beliefs and experiences are associated with certain personality factors, including absorption, fantasy proneness, and the Myers-Briggs intuition and feeling personality dimensions.  Skepticism appears to be associated with materialistic, rational, pragmatic personality types.  Attitude toward psi may also be influenced by motivations to have control and efficacy, to have a sense of meaning and purpose in life, to be connected with others, to have transcendent experiences, to have self-worth, to feel superior to others, and to be healed.  The efforts to obtain reliable control of psi in experimental parapsychology have not been successful.  Given the lack of control and lack of practical application of psi, it is not surprising that those who are by disposition materialistic and pragmatic find the evidence for psi to be unconvincing.  When psi experiences have been examined without a bias for control, the primary effect has been found to be enhanced meaning in life and spirituality, similar to mystical experiences.  Tensions among those with mystical, authoritarian, and scientific dispositions have been common in the history of paranormal and religious beliefs.  Scientific research can do much to create better understanding among people with different dispositions.  Understanding the motivations related to paranormal beliefs is a prerequisite for addressing questions about when and if psi actually occurs.

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The striking diversity of beliefs about paranormal phenomena is a noteworthy and poorly understood characteristic of humanity.  On the extremes, some people are almost violently opposed to the very concept of paranormal phenomena and others are equally adamant that such phenomena are real.  Neither side has prevailed and there is no indication that either side is getting the upper hand (Mathews, 2004; Musella, 2005).  Even those who claim tempered scientific perspectives sometimes appear to be living in different worlds.  For example, Schumaker (1990), a skeptic, described belief in paranormal phenomena as one of the strongest human motivations and as resulting from the “terror” of facing reality without irrational illusions.  On the other hand, Tart (1984), a proponent of psi, described the fear of psi as a powerful, pervasive, instinctive human motivation that prevents the acceptance and occurrence of psi.
As might be expected, the proposed explanations for paranormal beliefs tend to reflect the  attitudes of the person proposing the explanation.  In his extensive review, Irwin (1993) noted that “much of the skeptical research on the topic seems to have the implicit objective of demonstrating that believers in the paranormal are grossly deficient in intelligence, personality, education, and social standing” (p. 6).  These skeptical efforts have also carefully ignored the obvious fact that the deep hostility of some extreme skeptics indicates an irrational prejudice that needs explanation.
At the same time, proponents have done little to offer alternative models or to explain the prevalence of misbeliefs about psi.   Many people apparently misinterpret normal experiences as paranormal.  Broughton (1991, p. 10) noted that surveys typically find that over half of the population report having had a psi experience, but closer examination of the cases suggests that only about 10% to 15% of the population have had experiences that appear to be possible psi.   This estimate is consistent with early surveys (Rhine, 1934/1973, p. 17) and with later studies (Haight, 1979; Schmiedler, 1964).  At least 70% to 80% of the people reporting psychic experiences appear to be misinterpreting the experiences.  
The motivations for such extensive misinterpretations need to be explored.  In fact, understanding the motivations related to attitude toward psi would seem to be a prerequisite for understanding whether, when and how psi occurs.
The purpose of the present article is to summarize and discuss some of the key personality factors and motivations that appear to be relevant for understanding why people believe, misbelieve, and disbelieve in the paranormal.  Of course, innumerable personal, social, and cultural factors may have a role in attitude toward the paranormal.  The present discussion is intended as a starting point focusing on selected prominent factors.   These factors are diverse and the possibly of conflicting motivations should be recognized.

Terminology and Concepts
Certain distinctions in the terminology and concepts related to paranormal phenomena are useful for this discussion.  Following the definitions in the American Heritage Dictionary (3rd Edition), paranormal is a broad term that means beyond scientific explanation.  The term psychic is more narrow and refers to extraordinary mental powers such as ESP.  With this definition, psychic implies that a person is the causal factor for the phenomena, although it can include communication with the spirit of a deceased person.  The term supernatural means outside the natural world or attributed to divine power.  Supernatural typically implies paranormal phenomenon caused by a nonphysical being or power that has motivations and intentions separate from living persons.  Such beings are often considered as God or Gods if the motivations are beneficial for people, or as the devil or demons if the motivations are detrimental or evil.  The term miracle means an event with a supernatural origin.   According to the glossary in the Journal of Parapsychology, the term psi refers to ESP and PK, which also implies that the phenomena are produced by the mind of a person.   According to the glossary, the term parapsychology primarily refers to the study of ESP and PK.  Supernatural interpretations tend to be excluded from parapsychological writings and are often assumed to be misinterpretations of psi phenomena produced by living persons.  The extent to which psychic and supernatural are different interpretations for the same basic phenomena is an interesting empirical question that remains to be investigated.
The most widely used measures for paranormal beliefs are sheep-goat scales based on psychic phenomena (Palmer, 1971; Thalbourne & Delin, 1993), and the much broader paranormal beliefs scales that also include beliefs for things like the Loch Ness monster, that black cats bring bad luck, and in heaven and hell (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983).  The sheep-goat scales were developed by parapsychologists and the broader paranormal belief scales were generally developed by researchers who were more skeptical.  The number, validity, and orthogonality of factors in paranormal beliefs have been persistent, unresolved topics of debate (Hartman, 1999; Lange, Irwin, & Houran, 2000; Lawrence, Roe, & Williams, 1997; Tobacyk & Thomas, 1997).  
The most widely held beliefs about paranormal phenomena involve supernatural religious interpretations and are not included in these scales.  In U.S. national surveys, 89% of respondents strongly or somewhat agreed that “there is a God who watches over you and answers your prayers” (Barna, 1991) and 82% agreed that “even today, miracles are performed by the power of God” (Gallup & Castelli, 1989).  Measures that do not capture the most widely held beliefs may be of limited value in understanding the characteristics of paranormal beliefs.

Behavioral genetic and related research indicates that personality has significant genetic components and is also influenced by experiences, particularly during childhood (Cary, 2003; Collins, et al., 2000; Heath, Cloninger, & Martin, 1994; Rutter, Pickles, Murray, & Eaves, 2001; Stallings, et a., 1996; Tellegan, et al., 1988).   Attempts to isolate genetic from environmental effects are difficult because of methodological factors, such as that genes can influence which environments a person chooses to experience (Rutter, Pickles, Murray, & Eaves, 2001).   However, for purposes of the present article, the basic concept that personality depends on both genetic dispositions and environmental experiences is sufficient.
The discussions of personality types here are primarily intended to show that these factors appear to have a significant role in attitude toward the paranormal.  These discussions are not intended to limit the recognition of the variability among people or the likelihood that an individual may have motivations associated with various personality factors.  The research studies discussed here have often employed the Myers-Briggs personality model.  A summary of that model is described in the Appendix for those who may not be familiar with it.  It is likely that other personality models could be developed that would be more useful for research on paranormal beliefs.

Discussions of belief in psi must recognize the problematic properties of psi experiments that make scientific conclusions controversial.   The inability to develop reliable practical applications of psi after a century of research indicates a fundamental lack of scientific progress (Kennedy, 2003a).   The research efforts have not been able to overcome the capricious, evasive properties of psi that include unintended and undesired psi missing and loss of effects.  If the basic assumptions of experimental parapsychology were true, gambling industries such as casinos, lotteries, and commodity markets would not be expected to be viable.  The fact that these industries remain in business and appear to make profits consistent with the laws of probability places significant restrictions on the scientific expectations about psi.  Parapsychological writings generally have not addressed this central dilemma.  Greater acceptance of and attention to the capricious, evasive nature of psi may be a prerequisite for scientific progress in parapsychology (Kennedy 2003a).
One of the most revealing properties of psi research is that meta-analyses consistently find that experimental results do not become more reliably significant with larger sample sizes as assumed by statistical theory (Kennedy, 2003b; 2004).  This means that the methods of statistical power analysis for experimental design do not apply, which implies a fundamental lack of replicability.  
This property also manifests as a negative correlation between sample size and effect size.  Meta-analysis assumes that effect size is independent of sample size.  In medical research, a negative correlation between effect size and sample size is interpreted as evidence for methodological bias (Egger, Smith, Schneider, and Minder, 1997).  
The normal factors that can produce a negative correlation between effect size and sample size include publication bias, study selection bias, and the possibility that the smaller studies have lower methodological quality, selected subjects, or different experimenter influences.  All of these factors reduce confidence in a meta-analysis.  However, for psi experiments, the failure to obtain more reliable results with larger samples sizes could be a manifestation of goal-oriented psi experimenter effects or decline effects (Kennedy, 1995; 2003a).  Even if these effects are properties of psi, parapsychologists cannot expect that other scientists will find the experimental results convincing if methods such as power analysis cannot be meaningfully applied.  Further, for the past two decades, the debates about the reality of psi have focused on meta-analysis.  The evidence that psi experiments typically do not have properties consistent with the assumptions for meta-analysis adds substantial doubts to the already controversial (Kennedy, 2004) claims about meta-analysis findings in parapsychology.

Paranormal and mystical beliefs are closely related.  The personality factors most consistently associated with paranormal beliefs and experiences are the interrelated cluster of absorption, fantasy-proneness, and temporal lobe symptoms.  All three of these personality constructs involve a high degree of imagination and fantasy.  These factors generally correlate in the .5 to .6 range with each other and with mystical and paranormal experiences (summarized in Kennedy, Kanthamani, & Palmer, 1994).  
Thalbourne (1998; Lange, Thalbourne, Houran and Storm, 2000) found that this basic cluster of factors, including mystical experience, belief in paranormal phenomena, absorption, and fantasy proneness, constitute a single factor.  He proposed that it reflects a tendency for unconscious processes to emerge into consciousness and called the factor transliminality.  Hartmann’s (1991) earlier concept of thin boundaries of the mind is the same idea and has been associated with paranormal experiences (Palmer and Braud, 2002; Richards, 1996) and with the transliminality scale (r=.66) (Houran, Thalbourne, and Hartmann, 2003).
Based on his work with the Myers-Briggs personality model, Keirsey (1998) stated that people having intuitive, feeling (NF) personality types are mystical in outlook and often explore occultism, parapsychology, and esoteric metaphysical systems.  Those with NF dispositions aspire
to transcend the material world (and thus gain insight into the essence of things), to transcend the senses (and thus gain knowledge of the soul), to transcend the ego (and thus feel united with all creation), [and] to transcend even time (and thus feel the force of past lives and prophecies) (p. 145).
Research studies have found that belief in paranormal phenomena is associated with the N and F personality factors (Gow, Lurie, Coppin, Popper, Powell, & Basterfield, 2001; Lester, Thinschmidt, & Trautman, 1987;  Murphy & Lester, 1976).  In a study of a technique attempting to induce a sense of contact with someone who had died, 96% of the participants with NF personality types reported after-death contact experiences, whereas 100% of the  participants with ST (sensing,  thinking) personality types did not have these experiences (Arcangel, 1997).   In a survey of parapsychological researchers, Smith (2003) found that the F factor was associated with experimenters who were rated as psi-conducive.   Temporal lobes symptoms have been found to be associated with the N and P Myers-Briggs personality factors, and to a weaker extent with F (Makarec & Persinger, 1989).   Thin boundaries have been found to be associated with NF personality dispositions (Barbuto and Plummer, 1998).
Taken together, these findings indicate that certain people have innate interests in and motivations for mystical and paranormal experiences.  Behavioral genetic research indicates that absorption, the Myers-Briggs personality types, and interest in spirituality all have significant genetic components similar to other personality factors (Bouchard and Hur, 1998; Cary, 2003; Hammer, 2004; Tellegen, et al, 1988).